Drug (Addiction 4th major cause of death in Iran )

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Drug

A drug is any substance that can be used to modify a chemical process or processes in the body, for example to treat an illness, relieve a symptom, enhance a performance or ability, or to alter states of mind. The word "drug" is etymologically derived from the Dutch/Low German word "droog", which means "dry", since in the past, most drugs were dried plant parts.


Terminology
The term "drug" is necessarily a vague one, being defined by intent: for example, foods consumed for normal metabolism are not generally considered "drugs", but the same foods consumed for a more specific purpose (such as the use of alcohol as a depressant or caffeine as a stimulant) may be. Depending on the definition used, the same substance may even be considered both a food and a drug at the same time. The term "medication" is frequently applied to drugs used for medical treatment, presumably to avoid confusion with recreational drugs.


Efficacy
The effects of a particular drug can vary greatly depending on a number of factors:

dosage
combination with other drugs or foods
means of intake (ingestion, inhalation, injection, absorption)
the personal condition and circumstances of the subject (user or patient)
the user's expectations or beliefs about the drug (placebo effect)

Risks
All drug use includes a certain set of risks which must be weighed over the benefits. Along with the potential to treat illness and improve quality of life, they also have side effects which may include dependence, addiction, psychological disorders, physical deterioration or even death. Before taking any drug, one should be well aware of all the risks and side effects. For some drugs such as cannabis, their legal status poses more risk than use of the drug itself, as simple possession alone may lead to imprisonment. Others such as alcohol, caffeine and chocolate are so integrated into society that we forget that they are even drugs at all.

Distribution
Two patterns of distribution, licensed and illegal, are created by laws designed to prevent or punish perceived abuse or to protect the interests of licensed producers, suppliers and users. Laws may be designed also (not least with respect to alcohol and tobacco) to generate government tax revenue. Legislation tends however to limit our ideas about which substnaces should qualify as drugs. Broader ideas (which might include tea, coffee and saffron) allow perception of other patterns of distribution.

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Medications

In the United States, medical professionals may obtain drugs from drug companies or pharmacies (which in turn purchase drugs from the drug companies). Pharmacies may also supply a drug directly to patients, authorized by a prescription from a medical professional, if the drug can be safely self-administered. Most drugs are relatively high-cost for patients to purchase directly when first distributed, although health insurance may mitigate some of the cost. When the patent for a drug runs out, a generic drug (some known as simply a "generic") is usually synthesized and released by competing companies, causing the price to drop markedly. Drugs which don't require prescription by a medical professional are known as over-the-counter (OTC) drugs and can be sold in stores without pharmacy association.

Prohibition

Drug addiction, or substance dependence is the compulsive use of drugs, to the point where the user has no effective choice but to continue use. This phenomenon has occurred to some degree throughout recorded history (see "opium"), though modern agricultural practices, improvements in access to drugs, and advancements in biochemistry have exacerbated the problem significantly in the 20th century with the introduction of purified forms of active biological agents, and with the synthesis of hitherto unknown substances, such as methamphetamine and gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB). While "addiction" has been replaced by "dependency" as a clinical term, the terms are used interchangeably here.

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Classification
Drugs may be classified in many different ways, according to mechanism of action, effects, or even legal status.

Analgesic (painkiller) drugs
Non-NSAID antipyretics
Paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen, or under one of its trade names Tylenol), which can cause liver problems due to chronic use
NSAIDS (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) which are non-sedating (unlike opiates), but can cause internal bleeding, among other problems
Aspirin or ASA (acetylsalicylic acid), which is also an antipyretic
Ibuprofen (also known under the trade names Advil, Motrin, Nuprin, Nurofen and Brufen)
Opioids, powerful, addictive narcotic painkillers which are also used recreationally for their euphoric effects
Opiates refined from the opium poppy
Morphine
Codeine
Synthetic and semi-synthetic opioids
Heroin
Oxycodone (sold under the brand name Oxycontin, and contained in Percocet)
Vicodin
Demerol
Darvocet
Tramadol
Fentanyl
Recreational drugs usually used to alter mood or body function for recreation
Alcohol
Nicotine
Caffeine
Hallucinogens (including LSD, Magic mushrooms and Dissociative drugs)
Cannabis
MDMA
GHB
Heroin
Cocaine
Inhalants
Entheogenic drugs usually used to promote a mystical or shamanistic experience
Magic mushrooms
Peyote
Ayahuasca
Amanita muscaria
Salvia divinorum
Datura
LSD
Cannabis
Performance-enhancing drugs (for sport or combat).
Amphetamine
Ephedrine
Cocaine
Anabolic steroids
Lifestyle drugs used to enhance quality of life by addressing typically non-serious conditions
Viagra
Rogaine
Antidepressants are sometimes classed as lifestyle drugs, though this designation may be inappropriate
Psychiatric drugs (see also psychopharmacology)
Antidepressants
Fluoxetine
Paroxetine
Tranquilizers
Typical antipsychotic tranquilizers
Chlorpromazine
Atypical antipsychotic tranquilizers
Sedatives
Valium

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Regulations
Usage of most of drugs is regulated to some extent. While details vary with location, these are somewhat usual regulations in the Western world:

Not regulated:

Caffeine
Regulated to some extent (age or labeling requirements, for example) but available over the counter:

DXM/dextromethorphan
Acetylsalicylic acid (such as aspirin)
Paracetamol (also known as acetaminophen) (such as Tylenol)
Alcohol (although in some nations with an Islamic background, alcohol is prohibited)
Nicotine
Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine (illegal in US since Jan 2004)
Taurine
Prescription drugs, prohibited for non-medical use:

Cocaine
Codeine - available OTC in some countries as a cough remedy or in combination painkillers
GHB
Amphetamines
Anabolic steroids
Inhalants
Methadone
Morphine
Varies from tolerated to prohibited for medical use:

Cannabis
Salvia divinorum (prohibited in Australia, tolerated elsewhere)
Varies from prohibited for non-medical use to prohibited for any use

Heroin
MDMA
Prohibited for any use, no medical uses currently allowed

LSD

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Nicotine is an organic compound, an alkaloid found naturally throughout the tobacco plant, with a high concentration in the leaves. It is considered a carcinogen, and constitutes 0.3 to 5% of the plant by dry weight. The biosynthesis takes place in the roots and it is accumulated in the leaves. It is a potent nerve poison and is included in many insecticides. In lower concentrations, the substance is a stimulant and is one of the main factors leading to the pleasure and habit-forming qualities of tobacco smoking. In addition to the tobacco plant, nicotine is also found in lower quantities in other members of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family, which includes tomato, potato, eggplant (aubergine), and green pepper. Nicotine alkaloids are also found in the leaves of the coca plant.


Chemistry
Nicotine is a hygroscopic oily liquid that is miscible with water in its base form. As a nitrogenous base, nicotine forms salts with acids that are usually solid and water soluble. Nicotine easily penetrates the skin and forms vapors at elevated temperature.


Effects on the body
In small doses nicotine has a stimulating effect, increasing activity, alertness and memory. Repeat users report a pleasant relaxing effect. It also increases the heart rate and blood pressure and reduces the appetite. In large doses it may cause vomiting and nausea. The LD50 is 50 mg/kg for rats and 3 mg/kg for mice. 40-60 mg can be a lethal dosage for adult human beings.

Repeat users of nicotine often develop a physical dependency to the chemical. A report released on May 16, 1988 by United States Surgeon General C. Everett Koop stated that the addictive properties of nicotine are similar to those of heroin and cocaine; although many people do not agree with such a comparison. Physical withdrawal symptoms include irritability, headaches, anxiety, cognitive disturbances and sleep disruption. These symptoms may last for months or years, although they peak at around 48-72 hours, and generally cease after two to six weeks.

Although the amount of nicotine inhaled with tobacco smoke is quite small (most of the substance is destroyed by the heat) it is still sufficient to cause dependence. The amount of nicotine absorbed by the body from smoking depends on many factors, including the type of tobacco, whether the smoke is inhaled, and whether a filter is used. For chewing tobacco, which is held in the mouth between the cheek and gum, the amount released into the body tends to be much greater than smoked tobacco.

As nicotine enters the body, it quickly gets distributed through the bloodstream and can cross the blood-brain barrier. On average it takes about seven seconds for the substance to reach the brain. It acts on the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. In small concentrations it increases the activity of these receptors, among other things leading to an increased flow of adrenaline, a stimulating hormone. The release of adrenaline causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure and respiration, as well as higher glucose levels in the blood. Cotinine is a break-down product of nicotine which remains in the blood for up to 48 hours, and so can be used as an indicator of a person's exposure to smoke. In high doses, nicotine blocks the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, which is the reason for its toxicity and its effectiveness as an insecticide.

In addition, nicotine increases dopamine levels in the reward circuits of the brain. Studies have shown that smoking tobacco inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO), an enzyme responsible for breaking down monoaminergic neurotransmitters such as dopamine, in the brain. It is currently believed that nicotine by itself does not inhibit the production of monoamine oxidase (MAO), but that other ingredients in inhaled tobacco smoke are believed to be responsible for this activity. Thus it generates feelings of pleasure. This reaction is similar to that caused by cocaine and heroin, and is another reason people keep smoking: to sustain high dopamine levels.

It has been noted that the majority of people diagnosed with schizophrenia smoke tobacco. Estimates for the number of schizophrenics that smoke range from 75% to 90%. It is argued that the increased level of smoking in schizophrenia may be due to a desire to self-medicate with nicotine. [1] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li st_uids=12084420) [2] (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li st_uids=7864277)

Nicotine and its metabolites are being researched for the treatment of a number of disorders, including ADHD, Parkinson's Disease and Alzheimer's Disease.

It has long been thought that tar and other chemicals in tobacco were the main cause of cancer but recent studies showed that nicotine alone has carcinogenic properties by inhibiting the natural ability of the body to get rid of cells with significant genetic damage before they turn cancerous.


History and name
Nicotine is named after the tobacco plant Nicotiana tabacum which in turn is named after Jean Nicot, who sent tobacco seeds from Portugal to Paris in 1550 and promoted its medicinal use. It was first isolated in 1828; its molecular formula was established in 1843 and it was first synthesized in 1904.

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Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and an appetite suppressant, creating what has been described as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. Though most often used recreationally for this effect, cocaine is also a topical anesthetic that is used in eye and throat surgery. Cocaine is an addictive substance, and its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal (for non-medicinal / non-government sanctioned purposes) in virtually all of the world, which can be at least partially attributed to United Nations Commissions and United States drug policy.

History

The coca leaf
For thousands of years and still today, South American indigenous peoples have chewed the coca leaf, a plant which contains vital nutrients as well as numerous alkaloids including cocaine. The leaf was and is chewed almost universally by some indigenous communities, but there is no evidence that its habitual use ever led to any of the negative consequences generally associated with habitual cocaine use today. It is an important source of nutrition and energy in a region that is lacking in other food sources and oxygen; the vitamins and protein present in the leaves, as much as the cocaine alkaloid, helps provide the energy and strength necessary for steep walks in this mountainous area and days without eating.

When the Spaniards conquered South America, they at first ignored Aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the Devil. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% of the value of each crop. These taxes were for a time the main source of support for the Roman Catholic Church in the region.

In 1609 Padre Blas Valera wrote:

"Coca protects the body from many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of wounds, to strengthen broken bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots. And if it does so much for outward ailments, will not its singular virtue have even greater effect in the entrails of those who eat it?"

Appearance

Cocaine powder.Cocaine in its purest form is an off-white or pink chunky product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a salt, typically cocaine hydrochloride (CAS 53-21-4). Cocaine is frequently adulterated or "cut" with various powdery fillers to increase its volume; the substances most commonly used in this process are baking soda, sugars, such as lactose, inositol, and mannitol, and local anesthetics, such as lidocaine. Adulterated cocaine is often a white or off-white powder.

The color of "crack" cocaine depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation — with ammonia or sodium bicarbonate, and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from a light brown to a pale brown. Its texture will also depend on the factors which affect color, but will range from a crumbly texture, which is usually the lighter variety, to hard, almost crystalline nature, which is usually the darker variety.

Crack cocaine
Because of the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH4Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The "rock" which is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. When the rock is heated this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the name "crack"). Baking soda is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to hydrolyze some of the cocaine into useless ecgonine.

The net reaction when using baking soda (also called sodium bicarbonate, with a chemical formula of NaHCO3) is:

HCoc+ + NaHCO3 → Coc + H2O + CO2 + Na+

Methods of administration
Chewed/eaten
Snorted/sniffed
Injected
Smoked

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Cocaine addiction
Cocaine addiction is obsessive or uncontrollable abuse of cocaine. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) shows promising results. Spiritual based Twelve-step programs such as Cocaine Anonymous (modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous) have some success combating this problem. A cocaine vaccine is also being tested which may prevent the recipient from feeling the desirable effects of the drug.

Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings become associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild depression. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a club drug is most commonly available in the evening and night hours. Since cocaine is a stimulant, a user will often drink large amounts of alcohol during and after usage in order to sleep. These several hours of temporary relief and pleasure will further reinforce the positive response. Other downers such as heroin and various pharmaceuticals are often used for the same purpose, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness.

It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem from its DAT-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from ventral tegmental area neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration [2]. Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects

Treatment

GVG

Positron Emission Tomography scans showing the average level of dopamine receptors in 6 primates's brains. Red is high- and blue is low-concentration of dopamine receptors. The higher the level of dopamine, the fewer receptors there will be.Studies have shown that gamma vinyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid (gamma vinyl-GABA, or GVG), a drug normally used to treat epilepsy, blocks cocaine's action in the brains of primates. GVG increases the amount of the neurotransmitter GABA in the brain and reduces the level of dopamine in the region of the brain which is thought to be involved in addiction. In January 2005 the US Food and Drug Administration gave permission for a Phase I clinical trial of GVG for the treatment of addiction. Another drug currently tested for anti-addictive properties is the cannabinoid antagonist rimonabant.

GBR 12909
GBR 12909 (Vanoxerine) is a selective dopamine uptake inhibitor. Because of this, it reduces cocaine's effect on the brain, and may help to treat cocaine addiction. Studies have shown that GBR, when given to primates, suppresses cocaine self-administration.

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alcohol, any of a class of organic compounds with the general formula R[sbond]OH, where R represents an alkyl group made up of carbon and hydrogen in various proportions and [sbond]OH represents one or more hydroxyl groups. In common usage the term alcohol usually refers to ethanol. The class of alcohols also includes methanol; the amyl, butyl, and propyl alcohols; the glycols; and glycerol. An alcohol is generally classified by the number of hydroxyl groups in its molecule. An alcohol that has one hydroxyl group is called monohydric; monohydric alcohols include methanol, ethanol, and isopropanol. Glycols have two hydroxyl groups in their molecules and so are dihydric. Glycerol, with three hydroxyl groups, is trihydric. The monohydric alcohols are further classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary according to the number of carbon atoms bonded to the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is bonded. Many of the properties and reactions characteristic of alcohols are due to the electron charge distribution in the C[sbond]O[sbond]H portion of the molecule (see chemical bond). Chemical reactions involving the hydroxyl group in an alcohol molecule include: those in which the hydroxyl group is replaced as a whole, e.g., reaction of ethanol with hydrogen iodide to form ethyl iodide and water; those in which only the hydrogen in the hydroxyl group is replaced, e.g., the reaction of ethanol with sodium, an active metal, to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen; and those in which the carbon-oxygen bond becomes a double bond to form an aldehyde or ketone depending on whether it is a primary or secondary alcohol. Alcohols are generally less volatile, have higher melting points, and are more soluble in water than the corresponding hydrocarbons (in which the [sbond]OH group is replaced with hydrogen). For example, at room temperature methanol is a liquid, while methane is a gas.

Toxicity
Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. Ethanol in the form of alcoholic beverages has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as drunkenness or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with chronic use can cause severe health problems, such as liver and brain damage.

Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized, and often their metabolism produces even more toxic substances. Methanol, or wood alcohol, for instance, is oxidized by alcohol dehydrogenase enzymes in the liver to the poisonous formaldehyde, which can cause blindness or death. Interestingly, an effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. This will bind to alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing methanol from binding and thus its acting as a substrate.

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Alcoholism

Alcoholism, also known as “alcohol dependence,” is a disease that includes four symptoms:

Craving: A strong need, or compulsion, to drink.
Loss of control: The inability to limit one’s drinking on any given occasion.
Physical dependence: Withdrawal symptoms, such as nausea, sweating, shakiness, and anxiety, occur when alcohol use is stopped after a period of heavy drinking.
Tolerance: The need to drink greater amounts of alcohol in order to “get high.”
People who are not alcoholic sometimes do not understand why an alcoholic can’t just “use a little willpower” to stop drinking. However, alcoholism has little to do with willpower. Alcoholics are in the grip of a powerful “craving,” or uncontrollable need, for alcohol that overrides their ability to stop drinking. This need can be as strong as the need for food or water.

Although some people are able to recover from alcoholism without help, the majority of alcoholics need assistance. With treatment and support, many individuals are able to stop drinking and rebuild their lives.

Many people wonder why some individuals can use alcohol without problems but others cannot. One important reason has to do with genetics. Scientists have found that having an alcoholic family member makes it more likely that if you choose to drink you too may develop alcoholism. Genes, however, are not the whole story. In fact, scientists now believe that certain factors in a person’s environment influence whether a person with a genetic risk for alcoholism ever develops the disease. A person’s risk for developing alcoholism can increase based on the person’s environment, including where and how he or she lives; family, friends, and culture; peer pressure; and even how easy it is to get alcohol.

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Caffeine, also known as trimethylxanthine, coffeine, theine, mateine, guaranine, methyltheobromine and 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine, is a xanthine alkaloid found naturally in such foods as coffee beans, tea, kola nuts, Yerba mate, guarana berries, and (in small amounts) cacao beans. For the plant, caffeine acts as a natural pesticide since it paralyzes and kills insects that attempt to feed on the plant. Its chemical name is 3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione and its summary formula is C8H10N4O2. Although caffeine solutions are often used as a chemical standard for bitterness, caffeine is added to some soft drinks such as colas, Irn-Bru and Mountain Dew ostensibly for its taste.

Caffeine's main pharmacological properties are: a stimulant action on the central nervous system with psychotropic effects and stimulation of respiration, a stimulation of the heart rate, and a mild diuretic effect.

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Metabolism and toxicology
Caffeine is thought to act on the brain (and in fact, most cells of the body, since all cells have adenosine receptors) by blocking adenosine receptors (thereby blocking a pathway that leads to the breakdown of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, cAMP). Adenosine, when bound to receptors of nerve cells, slows down nerve cell activity; this happens, among other times, during sleep. The caffeine molecule, being similar to adenosine, binds to the same receptors but doesn't cause the cells to slow down; instead, the caffeine blocks the receptors and thereby the adenosine action. The resulting increased nerve activity causes the release of the hormone epinephrine (adrenaline), which in turn leads to several effects such as higher heart rate, increased blood pressure, increased blood flow to muscles, decreased blood flow to the skin and inner organs, and release of glucose by the liver. In addition, caffeine, similar to amphetamines, increases the levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the brain.

Caffeine is quickly and completely removed from the brain and, unlike other CNS stimulants or alcohol, its effects are short lived. In many people, caffeine does not negatively affect concentration or higher mental functions, and hence caffeinated drinks are often consumed in the course of work.

Continued consumption of caffeine can lead to tolerance. Upon withdrawal, the body becomes oversensitive to adenosine, causing the blood pressure to drop dramatically, leading to headache and other symptoms.

Too much caffeine can lead to caffeine intoxication. The symptoms of this disorder are restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushed face, diuresis, gastrointestinal complaints, even hallucinations. They can occur in some people after as little as 250 mg per day. More than 1,000 mg per day may result in muscle twitching, rambling flow of thought and speech, cardiac arrhythmia or tachycardia, and psychomotor agitation. Caffeine intoxication can lead to symptoms similar to panic disorder and generalized anxiety disorder.

The minimum lethal dose ever reported was 3,200 mg, intravenously. The LD50 of caffeine (that is the lethal dosage reported to kill 50% of the population) is estimated between 13-19 grams for oral administration for an average adult. The LD50 of caffeine is dependent on weight and estimated to be about 150-200 mg per kg of body mass, roughly 140-180 cups of coffee for an average adult taken within a limited timeframe that is dependent on half life. The half-life or time it takes to metabolize 50% of the caffeine, ranges from 3.5 to 100 hours. In adults the half-life is generally around 5 hours. However contraceptive pills increase this to around 12 hours and for women over 3 months pregnant it varies from 10 to 18 hours. In infants and young children the half-life may be longer than adults. With common coffee and a very rare half-life of 100 hours it would require 3 cups of coffee every hour for 100 hours just to reach LD50. Though achieving lethal dose with coffee would be exceptionally difficult, there have been many reported deaths from intentional overdosing on caffeine pills.

While safe for humans, caffeine and its related compounds theobromine and theophylline are considerably more toxic to some other animals such as dogs, horses and parrots due to a much poorer ability to metabolize these compounds.

Intake of caffeine can up to halve a patient's risk of diabetes mellitus type 2. While this was originally noticed in patients who consumed high amounts (7 cups a day), the relationship has now been shown to be linear (Salazar-Martinez 2004).

Intravenous caffeine is often used medically to treat post-lumbar puncture ("spinal tap") headache.

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Abuse and overdose
Caffeine, in its many forms, has been used for its stimulating effects. In modern times, though, the substance can be produced in much higher quantities, and has found its way into many products. Purer forms, such as those in caffeine pills, are easily available. These pills are sometimes used by college students and graveyard shift workers to last an entire night without sleep.

Caffeine pills have been under media fire for recent and past deaths of students, usually take on the form of a caffeine overdose. One such example of this was the death of a North Carolina student, Jason Allen. He swallowed most of a bottle of 90 such pills [1]. This was the equivalent of about 250 cups of coffee (or, alternatively, a gallon and a half (5 liters) of espresso, or 22 gallons (~85 liters) of Mountain Dew, though the soft drink is not caffeinated in all areas). Allen probably ingested about 18 grams of caffeine, since caffeine pills are restricted to 200 milligrams or less in the U.S., and most manufacturers make them in that size. A few other deaths by caffeine overdose have been known, almost always in the case of massive pill consumption on dares.

Studies in humans have shown that caffeine may cause miscarriage or may slow the growth of a developing fetus when given in doses greater than 300 mg (an amount equal to three cups of coffee) a day. In addition, use of large amounts of caffeine by the mother during pregnancy may cause problems with the heart rhythm of the fetus.

Excessive ingestion of caffeine can result in increased blood pressure and pulse, increased urine production, tightening or constricting of superficial blood vessels (sometimes resulting in cold hands or fingers), increased amounts of fatty acids in the blood, increased production of stomach acid.

Long periods of abuse can lead to detrimental effects on the esophagus (persons who consume high amounts of caffeine may have a risk for higher incidents of ulcers, erosive esophagitis, and Zollinger-Ellison Syndrome), heart problems, insomnia, chronic muscle tension and nervousness.

One dangerous form of caffeine use is to stay alert when one is under the influence of alcohol or in severe sleep debt. This tricks users into thinking they are more alert than they really are. Taking part in certain activities, such as driving, may be dangerous in such cases.

The term caffeinism has been coined to mean addiction to (or debilitating dependence on) caffeine.

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Cannabis is a flowering plant genus which includes three species, also known as hemp, though this term is usually only used to refer to non-drug use. As a drug it usually comes in the form of dried flowers, the resin of these (hashish) or various extracts of the cannabis plant, collectively referred to as hash oil .

Species

The genus Cannabis was formerly placed with the nettles in the order Urticales, but this order is now considered to be part of the order Rosales. There is phylogenetic controversy as to whether the cultivars of Cannabis are of a single species (Cannabis sativa) or represent three distinct species (as treated here, C. sativa C. indica, C. ruderalis). That there are different strains of cannabis has not been in question; whether these strains are distinct species, or only acceptable at a lower taxonomic rank, such as subspecies or variety, or even just different Cultivar Groups, has been at issue (Schultes & Hofmann 1980). Current research indicates the classification consists of more than one species. Botanists such as Richard E. Schultes at Harvard University and Loran C. Anderson at Florida State University conclude sufficient scientific evidence exists to support three species of cannabis, Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis. C. sativa grows to a height of 6 metres, is loosely branched, and thrives in hot, dry climates. C. indica grows from 1-1.3 metres, is conical in shape, and thrives in cooler, damper climates. C. ruderalis grows from 0.4 to 0.7 m, is dense and never branches, and is found primarily in Russia. There are other distinguishing features as well, related to cell and leaf structures. There are gelatinous fibers in the wood and vessels that exist singly or in small groups in C. sativa. C. indica has liberiform fibers in its wood and its vessels occur in large groups. C. ruderalis is mostly intermediate in these characteristics. Although the number of leaflets may vary within a species, C. sativa normally has nine leaflets, C. indica has seven, and C. ruderalis has three. The leaflet of C. sativa is narrow, or lanceolate. The C. indica leaflet is broad, or oblanceolate. And the C. ruderalis leaflet is oval, or elliptic, being broadest at the mid-length of the leaf (Anderson 1974, 1980). All three species contain tetrahydrocannabinol (THC); C.indica produces the most and C. ruderalis the least.

Cannabis has been cultivated for thousands of years for its intoxicating flowering tops and leaves, its fibrous stems and branches, and its nutritious seeds. A strain that is high in one of these three qualities tends to be low in the other two. C. indica, for example, is very low in fibre content but generates the most potent marijuana. C. sativa produces the hemp fibers that have been used for centuries for making rope and coarse woven produces, but races of C. sativa high in this quality contain very little THC (less than 0.5 percent). The seeds of C. sativa can also be harvested for use as animal feed and for producing oil that is used in cooking and in making paint.

Uses

Cannabis (drug) discusses its use as a psychoactive drug.
Medical marijuana discusses its use as a medicinal drug.
Health issues and the effects of cannabis
Hemp discusses its uses as a source of oil, food, fibers, and industrial materials.

Etymology of the term "Cannabis"

The name cannabis is thought to be of Scythian origin. Possibly it has an earlier origin in Semitic languages like Hebrew, in Exodus 30:23 God commands Moses to make a holy anointing oil of myrrh, sweet cinnamon, kaneh bosm, and kassia. Kaneh bosm (Hebrew kannabos or kannabus) "kan" in means "reed" or "hemp", while "bosm" means "aromatic". In the Greek translations of the old testament "kan" was rendered as "reed", leading to English translations as "sweet calamus" (Exodus 30:23), sweet cane (Isaiah 43:24; Jeremiah 6:20) and "calamus" (Ezekiel 27:19; Song of Songs 4:14).

Sara Benetowa of the Institute of Anthropological Sciences in Warsaw is quoted in the Book of Grass as saying: "The astonishing resemblance between the Semitic 'kanbos' and the Scythian 'cannabis' leads to the assumption that the Scythian word was of Semitic origin. These etymological discussions run parallel to arguments drawn from history.

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Sildenafil citrate, sold under the names Viagra and Revatio, is a drug used to treat male erectile dysfunction (impotence) and pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH), developed by the pharmaceutical company Pfizer. Viagra pills, intended to treat impotence, are blue with the words "Pfizer" on one side and "VGR xx" (with xx being either 25, 50 or 100 as the dose of that pill in milligrams) on the other.

Mechanism of action
Part of the physiological process of erection involves the release of nitric oxide (NO) in the corpus cavernosum. This then activates the enzyme guanylate cyclase which results in increased levels of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), leading to smooth muscle relaxation in the corpus cavernosum, resulting in increased inflow of blood and an erection.

Sildenafil is a potent and selective inhibitor of cGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) which is responsible for degradation of cGMP in the corpus cavernosum. This means that, with Viagra on board, normal sexual stimulation leads to increased levels of cGMP in the corpus cavernosum which leads to better erections. Without sexual stimulation and no activation of the NO/cGMP system, sildenafil should not cause an erection. Other drugs that operate by the same mechanism include tadalafil (Cialis®) and vardenafil (Levitra®).

Sildenafil is metabolised by hepatic enzymes and excreted by both the liver and kidneys. If taken with a high fat meal, there may be a delay in absorption of Viagra and the net effect might be muted slightly as the plasma concentration will be lowered.

Some reports have claimed that sildenafil causes enhanced sexual pleasure for women by increasing blood flow to the sexual organs.

Contraindications and side effects
Contraindications include:

When taking other nitric oxide donors, organic nitrites and nitrates, such as glyceryl trinitrate, sodium nitroprusside, amyl nitrite (Cheitlin et al 1999)
In men for whom sexual intercourse is inadvisable due to cardiovascular risk factors
Severe hepatic impairment (decreased liver function)
Severe impairment in renal function
Hypotension (low blood pressure)
Recent stroke or heart attack
Hereditary degenerative retinal disorders (including genetic disorders of retinal phosphodiesterases)
Amongst sildenafil's serious adverse effects are: priapism, severe hypotension, myocardial infarction, ventricular arrhythmias, sudden death, stroke and increased intraocular pressure.

Common side effects include sneezing, headache, flushing, dyspepsia, prolonged erections, palpitations and photophobia. Visual changes including blurring of vision and a curious bluish tinge have also been reported.

In May of 2005, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration found that sildenafil could lead to vision impairment. An investigation is currently undergoing. Some patients developed nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION), an eye problem that can result in permanent vision loss. Combined with past reports, this study brings the total number of sildenafil-related NAION cases to 14.

Some users complained of blurriness and some a loss of peripheral vision. It appears that there is a hereditary condition described as a "cup" in the retina that is the constant among all cases.

[RedWine]

LSD

D-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide, commonly called acid, LSD, or LSD-25, is a powerful semisynthetic psychedelic drug. A typical dose of LSD is only 100 to 150 micrograms, a tiny amount roughly equal to one-tenth the weight of a grain of sand. Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 20 micrograms. LSD causes a powerful intensification and alteration of senses, feelings, memories, and self-awareness for 6 to 14 hours. In addition, LSD usually produces visual effects such as moving geometric patterns, "trails" behind moving objects, and brilliant colors. LSD usually does not produce hallucinations in the strict sense, but instead illusions and vivid daydream-like fantasies. At higher concentrations it can cause synaesthesia. The immediate effects are sometimes followed by long-lasting or even permanent changes in a user's psychology, point of view, and personality.

LSD is synthesized from lysergic acid and is sensitive to oxygen, ultraviolet light, and chlorine, especially in solution. In pure form it is colorless, odorless, and bitter. LSD is typically delivered orally, usually on a substrate such as absorbent blotter paper, a sugarcube, or gelatin. In all these preparations, LSD is tasteless.

Introduced by Sandoz as a drug with various psychiatric uses, LSD quickly became a therapeutic agent that appeared to show great promise. However, the extra-medical use of the drug in western society in the middle years of the twentieth century led to a political firestorm that resulted in the banning of the substance for medical as well as recreational and spiritual uses.

Acute duration
LSD's primary effects normally last from 6 to 12 hours. It is typical for users of LSD to be unable to sleep restfully (or at all, despite desparate attempts to) until at least 12 hours have passed, and they do not feel completely "back to normal" until after getting one or two full nights of restful sleep, although they will exhibit no outward signs of impairment after the drug has worn off.

LSD has an extremely short half life in the body. Most of the drug's already minuscule dose is eliminated before the trip is even over, suggesting that LSD triggers some sort of neurochemical cascade rather than acting directly to produce its effects.

Anecdotal reports indicate that administration of Thorazine or similar typical antipsychotic tranquilizers will not end an LSD trip, but rather will just immobilize the patient. While it also may not end an LSD trip, the best chemical treatment for a "bad trip" is an anti-anxiety agent such as valium (diazepam) or other benzodiazepines.

Physical dangers
Although LSD is generally considered nontoxic, other dangers may arise from bad judgments made during the experience. As with many drugs, while under the influence of LSD the ability to make sensible judgments and understand common dangers can be impaired, making the user susceptible to personal injury.

If an individual attempts to drive a car or operate machinery under the influence of the drug, it could lead to accidents and injury.

There is also some indication that LSD may trigger a dissociative fugue state in individuals who are taking certain classes of antidepressants such as lithium salts and tricyclics. In such a state, the user has an impulse to wander, and may not be aware of his or her actions, which can lead to physical injury. MAOIs and SSRIs are believed to interact more benignly, tending to diminish LSD's subjective effects greatly.

[CheshmAsali]

ishhh ishhhhhh

[ProudPersian]

It is very true Redwine, LSD is for the nontoxic, only the judgements one makes while high are dangerous. However under the supervision of a psychologist this is not a threat.

Stanislav Grof's books on LSD are great reads. He was an Czech scientist who experimented with LSD. His books, The Holotropic Mind, and The Adventure of Self-Discovery, are filled with examples of ppl who have taken LSD, there bizarre yet interesting experiences and how it helped them psychologically.

It is a shame that LSD is illegal in the US, as its potential benefits far outweigh its negative consequences.

I believe Grof figured some natural breathing techniques to replicate the effects of LSD??? I think he gives classes on the stuff somewhere in California.

[RedWine]

morphine, principal derivative of opium, which is the juice in the unripe seed pods of the opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. It was first isolated from opium in 1803 by the German pharmacist F. W. A. Sertürner, who named it after Morpheus, the god of dreams. Given intravenously, it is still considered the most effective drug for the relief of pain.


Morphine the principal active agent in opium, is a powerful opioid analgesic drug. According to recent research, it may also be produced naturally by the human brain.Like other opiates, morphine acts directly on the central nervous system to relieve pain, and at synapses of the arcuate nucleus, in particular. Side effects include impairment of mental performance, euphoria, drowsiness, lethargy, and blurred vision. It also decreases hunger, inhibits the cough reflex, and produces constipation. Morphine is usually highly addictive, and tolerance and physical and psychological dependence develop quickly. Patients on morphine often report insomnia and nightmares.

Morphine is frequently found in various preparations.

Parenterally it is given as subcutaneous, intravenous, or epidural injections. The military sometimes issues morphine loaded in an autoinjector.

Orally, it comes as an elixir or in tablet form. Morphine is rarely in suppository form.

Morphine is used legally in the following :

the relief of acute, severe pain
pain after surgery
pain associated with trauma
the relief of moderate to severe chronic pain
cancer pain
tooth extraction
as an adjunct to general anesthesia
in epidural anesthesia
relief of pain in palliative care

[Deeze]

i used to smoke weed alot quit it on january 23rd 2003, smoekd again 3 sticks on july 18th 2004 in atlanta and would do it again anytime when i am in the u.s.

my messege is: smoke weed every day. be high every night

[IQ]

chasm hatman. montazere ejaazat boodim.

[RedWine]

Overdose, sometimes fatal
For intravenous abusers (people who inject) of heroin, the use of non-sterile needles and syringes and other materials leads to the risk of contracting blood-borne pathogens such as HIV and/or hepatitis infections as well as the risk of contracting bacterial or fungal endocarditis
Poisoning from contaminants added to "cut" or dilute heroin
Many countries and local governments have instituted programs to supply sterile needles to people who inject illegal drugs in order to reduce some of these contingent risks. While needle exchanges have demonstrated an immediate public health benefit, some see such programs as tacit acceptance of illicit drug use. The United States does not support needle exchanges federally by law, though some of its state and local governments do.

A heroin overdose is usually treated with an opioid antagonist, such as naloxone (Narcan) or naltrexone, which have a high affinity for opioid receptors but do not activate them. This blocks heroin and other opioid agonists and causes an immediate return of consciousness and start of withdrawal symptoms when administered intraveneously. The half-life of these antagonists is usually much shorter than that of the opiate drugs they are used to block, so the antagonist usually has to be re-administered multiple times until the opiate has been metabolized by the body.

Contrary to popular belief, a heroin overdose is not fast-acting. Stories about people who "OD with the needle still in their arm" and the like are not attributable to heroin overdoses, but rather they are very often the result of a fatal reaction with the adulterant. Quinine is notorious for causing such deaths. In the case of an actual heroin overdose, it very often takes many hours to die.

Heroin overdoses are more rare than one might first expect. As noted above, an overdose is immediately reversible with an opioid antagonist injection. The overwhelmingly vast majority of reported heroin overdoses are actually adulterant poisonings or fatal interactions with alcohol or methadone. True overdoses are rare because the LD50 for a person already addicted is prohibitively high, to the point that there is no general medical consensus on where to place it. Several studies done in the 1920s gave addicts doses of 1,600–1,800 mg of heroin in one sitting, and no adverse effects were reported. This is approximately 160–180 times a normal recreational dose. Even for a non-addict, the LD50 can be credibly placed above 350 mg.

It should be noted, however, that street heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that an addict may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, relapsing addicts after a period of abstinence have tolerances below what they were during active addiction. If a dose comparable to their previous use is taken an overdose often results.

[RedWine]

The withdrawal syndrome from heroin (or any other short-acting opioid) can begin within 6 hours of discontinuation of sustained use of the drug: sweating, malaise, anxiety, depression, persistent and intense penile erection in males (priapism), general feeling of heaviness, cramp-like pains in the limbs, yawning and lachrymation, sleep difficulties, cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches not precipitated by any physical trauma, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, gooseflesh (hence, the term "cold turkey"), cramps, and fever occur. Many addicts also complain of a painful condition, the so-called "itchy blood", which often results in compulsive scratching that causes bruises and sometimes ruptures the skin leaving scabs. Abrupt termination of heroin use causes muscle spasms in the legs of the user (restless leg syndrome), hence the term "kicking the habit". However, it must be noted that each person's symptoms can be unique. Users seeking to take the "cold turkey" (without any preparation or accompaniments) approach are generally more likely to experience the negative effects of withdrawal in a more pronounced manner.

Two general approaches are available to ease opioid withdrawal. The first is to substitute a longer-acting opioid such as methadone or buprenorphine for heroin or another short-acting opioid and then slowly taper the dose. The other approach, which can be used alone or in combination, is to relieve withdrawal symptoms with non-opioid medications.

In the second approach, benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium) ease the often extreme anxiety of opioid withdrawal. The most common benzodiazepine employed as part of the detox protocol in these situations is oxazepam (Serax). However, it is important to note that benzodiazepine use may also lead to a dependence, and many opiate addicts also abuse other central nervous system depressants including benzodiazepines and barbituates. Also, though unpleasant, opiate withdrawal seldom has potential to become fatal, whereas complications related to withdrawal from benzodiazepines, barbiturates and alcohol (such as seizures, cardiac arrest, and delirium tremens) can prove hazardous and potentially fatal. Many symptoms of opioid withdrawal are due to rebound hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system, and this can be suppressed with clonidine (Catapres), a centrally-acting alpha-2 agonist primarily used to treat hypertension.

Buprenorphine is one of the most recent opioid agonist/antagonist used for treating addiction. It develops tolerance much slower than heroin or methadone. It also has a withdrawal many times softer than heroin and other opioids. It can be admnistered up to every 24-48 hrs. By itself buprenorphine has low overdose dangers. Buprenorphine is a kappa-opioid receptor antagonist. This gives the drug an anti-depressant effect, increasing physical and intellectual activity.

Methadone is another μ-opioid agonist often used to substitute for heroin in treatment for heroin addiction. Compared to heroin, methadone is well (but slowly) absorbed orally and has a much longer duration of action. Thus methadone maintenance avoids the rapid cycling between intoxication and withdrawal associated with heroin addiction. In this way, methadone has shown some success as a "less harmful substitute"; despite being much more addictive than heroin, and is recommended for those who have repeatedly failed to complete detoxification. As of 2005, the μ-opioid agonist buprenorphine is also being used to manage heroin addiction, being a superior, though still imperfect and not yet widely known alternative to methadone. Note that methadone, since it is longer-acting, produces withdrawal symptoms that are usually less severe and that appear later than with heroin, but may last longer.

Researchers have discovered two types of opioid antagonists: naloxone and the longer-acting naltrexone. These two medications block the effects of heroin, as well as the other opioids at the receptor site. Recent studies have suggested that the addition of naloxone and naltrixone may improve the success rate in treatment programs when combined with the traditional therapy.

The University of Chicago undertook preliminary development of a heroin vaccine in monkeys during the 1970s, but it was abandoned. There were two main reasons for this. Firstly, when immunised monkeys had an increase in dose of x16, their antibodies became saturated and the monkey had the same effect from heroin as non-immunised monkeys. Secondly, until they reached the x16 point immunised monkeys would substitute other drugs to get a heroin-like effect. These factors suggested that immunised human addicts would simply either take massive quantities of heroin, or switch to other hard drugs, which is known as cross-tolerance.

There also is a controversial treatment for heroin addiction based on an African drug, ibogaine. Many people travel abroad for ibogaine treatments that generally stop the addiction for 3 months or more.

[RedWine]

Cocaine addiction is the obsessive or uncontrollable abuse of cocaine. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) shows promising results. Spiritual based Twelve-step programs such as Cocaine Anonymous (modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous) have some success combatting this problem. A cocaine vaccine is also being tested which may prevent the recipient from feeling the desirable effects of the drug, although a similar effort to develop a heroin vaccine was abandoned as ineffective in the 1970s.

Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings become associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild depression. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a club drug is most commonly available in the evening and night hours. Since cocaine is a stimulant, a user will often drink large amounts of alcohol during and after usage or smoke marijuana to dull the effects to help one achieve slumber. These several hours of temporary relief and pleasure will further reinforce the positive response. Other downers such as heroin and various pharmaceuticals are often used for the same purpose, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness.

It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem from its DAT-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from ventral tegmental area neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration . Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects . The rewarding effects of cocaine are influenced by circadian rhythms , possibly by involving a set of genes termed "clock genes"

[donsaeid]

استفاده از آمپولهاو قرص*هاي جديد اعتياد آور، مرگ مدرن

استفاده از آمپول*هاي روان گردان و قرص*هاي مواد مخدر شيميايي جديدي به نام كريستال يا شيشه در ميان جوانان در كشور بويژه شهرستان كرمانشاه رو به افزايش است.

پزشكان متخصص از اين پديده به عنوان مرگ مدرن نام مي*برند.

اثرات اين داروهاي اعتياد آور شيميايي به گونه*اي است كه با يك الي دو بار مصرف آن امكان درمان آن غير ممكن است و تا مدت*ها به راحتي قابل تشخيص نسيت.

اين مواد شميايي مخدر و انواع قرص به علت اينكه در آب حل شده و بي*رنگ و بي*بو هستند در مجالس از آنها با عنوان مواد نيروزا، قرص*هاي لاغري به جوانان و نوجوانان داده مي*شود.

اثرات آن معمولا از نيم ساعت بعد شروع و گاها بعضي از آمبول*هاي روان گردان تا شش ساعت باقي مي*ماند.

گروه تزريقي اين آمپول*ها "تمجيزك، نورجيزك، اورجيزك، جسنور" نام دارند و عمدتا از كشورهاي پاكستان و افغانستان وارد كشور مي*شوند و با نام تجاري بوپورفين، كه ماده*اي شيميايي قويتر از مورفين است شناخته مي*شوند.

ايجاد سرخوشي، افزايش تمايل به برقراري ارتباط با ديگران، كاهش شرم و حيا و احساس بالاي لذت عشق و دوستي از پيامدهاي استفاده از اين مواد است.

عوارض ناشي از مصرف آن تهوع، استفراغ، خواب آلودگي، گيجي، خشكي*دهان، مشكلات شديد تنفسي است.

يك سري مواد مخدر جديد به نام كريستال، شيشه و يا يخ وارد بازار شده كه تركيبي از كوكائين و هروئين است، اين مواد پودر سفيد مايل به خاكستري كه در داخل آب حل مي*شود و بي*بو و بي*رنگ است و به سادگي قابل تشخيص نيست.

اين مواد در بعضي از مجالس و مهماني*ها به خورد جوانان داده مي*شود و با عنوان قرض*هاي لاغري و دانه*هاي ژلاتيني به فروش مي*رسد و انواع آن به صورت سيگار و مواد مخدر خوراكي، مانند شكلات و يا آدامس يافت مي*شود.

بر اساس برخي آمارها‪ ۵۰‬درصد حملات مسلحانه، ‪ ۳۴‬درصد تصادفات ناشي از خواب آلوگي، ‪ ۳۰‬درصد حوادث اتومبيل، ‪ ۱۲‬درصد از خودكشي*ها و ‪ ۱۱‬درصد از بيماري قلبي و عروقي به خاطر مصرف اين مواد مخدر است.

قرض*هاي اكستازي كه از مشتقات آمفتامين كه قرض*هاي شادي آور هستند باعث شادي غير عاددي در فرد مي*شود، بررسي*ها نشان مي*دهد.

قيمت اين قرض*ها در ايران بين ‪ ۲۰‬تا ‪ ۴۰‬هزار ريال است كه درميان جواناني كه از اين نوع قرص*هامصرف مي*كنند به قرص*هاي مرسدس بنز، ميسيوبيشي و دلار معروف است.

اثرات اين داور معمولا تا بيست دقيقه بعد از مصرف ظاهر مي*شود و تا دو الي سه ساعت باقي مي*ماند.

يكي از اثرات آن احساس روشنايي شديد گشاد شدن مردمك چشم است به طوري كه استفادكنندگان از اين نوع قرص*ها مجبور مي*شوند حتي در اتاق كاملا تاريك عينك آفتابي بزنند.

عارضه ديگر آن افزايش ضربان قلب و فشار خون است و فك زدن*هاي مكرر كه ساعت*ها ادامه دارد و طرف مجبور مي*شود كه آدامس مصرف كند و گاها ديده مي*شود در صورت در دسترس نبود آدامس ، افراد مجبور مي*شوند كه زبان خود را زخم كنند.

پزشكان متخصص معتقدند كه افرادي كه سابقه بيماريهاي قلبي، فشار خون و يا سابقه بيماريهاي افسردگي را دارند، توصيه مي*شود كه به هيچ وجه از اين داروها استفاده نكنند، چرا كه ممكن است باعث مرگ آني بشود.

تغيير دادن گروه دوستان، تغيير در ساعت خواب، افت تحصيلي، از دست دادن علاقه به ورزش*و رفتارهاي خشن و پرخشگرانه، بي*تفاوتي به اهداف زندگي خيره شدن به يك نقطه و فك زدن*هاي مكرر از علام استفاده اين داورها است.

متاسفانه در زمان حاضر مصرف اين گونه داروها هيچ پادزهري ندارد و استفاده چندين بار از آنها قابل درمان نيست.

مسوولان قضايي و بهداشتي استان كرمانشاه از افزايش اين نوع داروها در ميان دانش آموزان، جوانان به ويژه دختران كرمانشاهي اظهار نگراني مي*كنند.

رييس دانشگاه علوم پزشكي استان كرمانشاه گفت : در حدود پنج سالي است كه استفاده از آمپول*هاي روان گردان و قرض*هاي شادي آور در ميان دانش آموزان كرمانشاهي رايج شده است.

"بابك ايزدي" افزود : اين نوع داروهاي شيميايي اعتياد آور باتوجه به اينكه استاندارد نيستند، و در آزمايشگاه*هاي با تجهيزات كم تهيه مي*شوند احتمال آلودگي دارند و گاها باعث مرگ آني مي*شوند.

وي افزود : متاسفانه اين داروها با قيمت ارزان و به راحتي در بازار يافت مي*شوند و از طرفي ديگر ابزار و آلات مواد اعتياد آور قديمي را ندارد و به راحتي مي*توان از آن استفاده كرد.

وي با اشاره به اينكه مصرف اين نوع مواد مخدرهاي شيميايي احتياج به ابزاري مصرفي خاصي ندارد، به شهروندان توصيه كرد : از فرزندان خود مراقبت كنند چرا كه ممكن است گرفتار شوند و خانواده*ها مدتها متوجه اين مسئله نشوند.

به گفته وي، هرگونه تغيير در رفتار و اخلاق و يا افسردگي و شادي بيش از حد ممكن است از علام اعتياد فرزندان باشد و مردم متوجه باشند كه با مصرف دو الي سه بار ، فرزندانشان گرفتار دام اعتياد خطرناكي مي*شوند.

يك مقام قضايي از توزيع و گستردش آمپول*هاي روان گردان درميان دانش آموزان كرمانشاهي خبر داد.

بازپرس شعبه هفتم دادسراي عمومي انقلاب كرمانشاه افزود : فروشندگان اين نوع آمپول*ها در ميان دانش آموزان دختر و پسر رخنه كرده و استفاده از آن به صورت نگران*كننده اي رايج شده است.

"سيد سعيد حيدري طيب" افزود : بيشتر اين آمپول*ها در غالب مواد آمپول*هاي نيرو زا به فروش مي*رسد.

وي تاكيد كرد : متاسفانه با استفاده از نخستين آمپول فرد معتاد مي*شود و تا چندين سال اين وضعيت براي خانواده*ها مشخص نيست.

وي با بيان اينكه بيشتر اين آمپول*ها از كشورهاي اروپايي به ايران وارد مي*شود، افزود : در كرمانشاه اين آمپول*ها شبيه*سازي مي*شوند كه استفاده از آن بسيار خطرناك تر است.

وي تاكيد كرد : هر چند علم پزشكي پيشرفت زيادي كرده است، اما درمان اين نوع معتادي بنا به گفته پزشكان بسيار سخت است.

حيدري طيب از خانواده*ها خواست كه به شدت از فرزندان خود مراقبت كنند و مواظبت باشند كه فرزندان آنها گرفتار اين پديده هولناك نشوند.

وي تاكيد كرد : متاسفانه بر اساس پرونده*هايي كه به دادگستري كرمانشاه ارسال مي*شود، تعداد استفاده*كنندگان از اين نوع آمپول*ها در ميان دختران بيشتر است.

[RedWine]

A new technique can trace counterfeit drugs while they are still in their packs, UK government scientists say.
A study published in the journal Analytical Chemistry said the new laser technique could examine the contents of blister packs and bottles.

A company will develop applications of the technique.

A spokesman for the Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry (ABPI) said: "This is something we will watch with interest".

Raman spectroscopy - a technique which analyses changes in laser light bouncing off molecules to indicate their chemical composition - is already used to identify the chemical composition of samples and can be used with battery-operated hand-held instruments.

Investigate

However, it does not always work through some forms of packaging, and has not been feasible with non-transparent plastic bottles until now.

But in the Analytical Chemistry paper, Doctors Charlotte Eliasson and Pavel Matousek from the Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, run by the Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils (CCLRC) said the new technique - called Spatially Offset Raman Spectroscopy (SORS) can investigate the contents of blister packs and plastic bottles without opening them.

SORS involves changing the alignment of the laser instrument so that light is gathered from areas away from where the laser hits the sample.

This shows up the chemical composition of the drugs - meaning that experts can see if their make-up is correct or not.

In a report on SORS last year, a team of scientists including some from Rutherford Appleton, and ICI said it could be used to identify "substances beneath surfaces" and foresaw its use to analyse the internal composition of bones and tissues, jewellery and industrial materials.

World Health Organization statistics indicate that 30% of medicines supplied in developing countries are fake; in some East European countries the proportion is 10%.

Spot-checks

"We're always looking at new ways of combating counterfeiting," an ABPI spokesman said.

In developing countries the problem was rife, he said - adding that the main risk in the UK arose from medicines bought without prescription on the internet.

The government's Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) says it operates Europe's largest scheme of spot-checks on medicines, but adds: "It is recognised that no supply chain is impenetrable."

A spokeswoman for the MHRA said that in general it welcomed anything which kept counterfeit medicines off the market - but would not comment on the SORS technique until the agency had been able to assess it.

[RedWine]

به گزارش شبکه خبر fcnn به نقل از روز مدیرکل مبارزه با مواد مخدرنیروی انتظامی ازاستفاده برخی مواد جدید توسط جوانان خبرداده است. به گفته او "کرک" و"کریستال" دوماده مخدری هستند که توسط جوانان مورد استفاده قرار می گیرد. مواد یاد شده از نظر صدمه زایی، از هرویین نیز خطرناک تر هستند.

نیروی انتظامی اعلام کرده است که ميزان کشفيات مواد مخدر و مشروبات الكلي طي هفت ماه نخست امسال نسبت به مدت مشابه سال گذشته 70 درصد افزايش يافته* و عمده تلاش اين نيرو بر شناسايي باندهاي سازمان يافته فساد متمرکز شد ه *است.

حمید رضا حسن آبادی که خبرگزاری مهر گفته است که مبارزه با "کراک"، "کریستال" و" هرویین" اولویت های نیروی انتظامی را به خود اختصاص می دهد. این درحالی است که با توجه به شکل این مواد وقابلیت فشرده بودن آنها، عملا امکان کشف و کنترل ان بسیار دشوار تراز مواد مخدر دیگر است.

به علاوه قرص*هاي اكستازي و روانگردان*های کشف شده که هم اکنون نگرانی بسیاری ازخانواده ها را موجب شده است، اغلب از اروپا، تركيه و بنادر جنوبي و آمپول*هاي مرفين از كشور پاكستان وارد كشور مي*شوند. به گفته مسئولین حوزه مواد مخدر هم اكنون بيش از يكهزار نوع قرص* اكستازي صنعتي و توهم*زا كه انسان را از حالت طبيعي خارج مي*كند، در كشور وجود دارد. ابعاد این مساله آنچنان بزرگ است که حتی با وجود مشکلاتی که درزمینه کشف این مواد وجود دارد تنها درنیمه اول سال جاری ، 337 هزار و 483 آمپول مرفين و 300 هزار و 334 عدد انواع قرص*هاي روانگردان و اكستازي از قاچاقچيان كشف شده است.

علی هاشمی رییس ستاد مبارزه با مواد مخدر پیش ازاین اعلام کرده بود که تعداد مبتلایان به مواد مخدر در کشور دومیلیون نفر است. از نظر کارشناسان با رقم های واقعی فاصله بسیاری دارد. طبق امارهای ارائه شده توسط مسئولین مرتبط با مواد مخدر، سن اعتیاد درایران بین 29 تا 39 سال است.

صرصامی مشاور علی هاشمی گفته است که براي پيشگيري از گسترش مواد مخدر "قراراست به زودی زمينه اطلاع*رساني پيرامون موادمخدر براي 15 ميليون نفر دانش*آموز از طريق آموزش و پرورش با تهيه جزوه*هاي آموزشي فراهم خواهد بیاید.

کارشناسان دولتي مي گويند برخورداری از مرزی با بیش از 900 کیلومتر با افغانستان عملا کنترل مواد مخدر را درک غیرممکن کرده است. اين در حالي است که طی سالهای گذشته به دلیل ارزان تر شدن برخی مواد مخدر مانند هرویین وتریاک، عملا سطح قوت مصرف افزایش چشمگیری پیدا کرده است.

[RedWine]

هنوز صد سال نشده، هنوز از خاطره ها نرفته كه چگونه ترياك جاي خود را در ميان ايرانيان باز كرد، انگليسي ها سوخته آن را مي خريدند و مردم به ترياكي شدن تشويق مي شدند، چپق و قليان از مد افتاده بودند و ترياك وافور مد شد، اما همانگونه كه زمان از توقف باز نمي ايستد و هر روز اختراع و اكتشاف جديدي مي شود و هر روز چيزي براي تعجب كردن و انگشت حيرت به دهان گرفتن انسان ها پيدا مي شود مخدر ها هم روز به روز به روز شدند و نشئه شدن ها هم به روزتر شد، روزگاري با پك زدن هاي عميق به وافور، زماني ديگر با استنشاق گردهاي سفيد هروئين بر روي زرورق يا تزريق آن!
اسم ها هم به روز شدند ترياك سنتي و طبيعي رو به فراموشي مي رود چون هم قديمي است و هم بي كلاس است و كراك و شيشه و پان مدرن و صنعتي طرفدار پيدا كرده است.
جوانان هم ترياك و هروئين را مخدر مي دانند و كراك و شيشه را مخدر نمي دانند شايد چيزي مي دانند در حد يك قليان آن هم از نوع ميوه اي اش پس ترس و ابائي براي عدم مصرف آن ندارند و يا يك قرص نشاط آور تا ساعتي به اصطلاح خوش باشند و حال كنند، سلامت نيوز در نگاهي كوتاه به معرفي و بررسي عوارض مصرف كراك كه مصرف آن امروزه بين جوانان ‪۱۷‬تا ‪ ۲۵‬سال رو به افزايش است مي پردازد.
كراك ايراني خطرناك تر از كراك خارجي !
كراك اصل نوعي از مواد مخدر است از الكالوئيدهاي دسته كوكائين، انرژي زا و شادي آور است و هيچگونه اعتيادي را در فرد مصرف كننده ايجاد نمي كند، ولي موادي كه با نام كراك در ايران توزيع ميشود كراك اصل نيست ، بلكه هروئين غليظ شده است كه توسط مافياي روسيه توليد و درايران پخش ميشود .
در ايران كراك در آزمايشگاههاي مخفي و خانگي با فشرده*كردن هروئين بدون در نظر گرفتن هر گونه استانداري انجام مي شود و هر آزمايشگاهي بسته به نوع امكانات و سليقه توليدكننده متفاوت است و همين موضوع، وضعيت بازار كراك و مصرف آن را آشفته*تر كرده است.
در برخي موارد نيز از ضايعاتي كه نمي توان از آن هروئين خالص بدست آورد كراك توليد ميشود ، اين كراك يكي از قويترين مواد مخدر محسوب شده و بشدت اعتياد ايجاد ميكند بطوريكه طي يكماه اول مصرف دائم از آن مقدار مصرف به 3 يا 4 برابر روز اول مصرف رسيده و تعداد دفعات مصرف روزانه به 10 بار در روز (تقريبا ً هر 2 ساعت يكبار) ميرسد .
كراك بسيار كوچك است؛ از نخود كوچكتر. به*اندازه يك عدس حتي يك دانه ماش را به نوك سنجاق مي*چسبانند و همين *اندازه مي*تواند بارها با يك سنجاق داغ ديگر مورد استفاده قرار گيرد.
هرچند كوكائين زماني به عنوان ماده مخدر طبقه ممتاز شهرت داشت، اما اعتياد به كرك محدود به يك گروه سني يا شرايط اجتماعي يا اقتصادي خاص نيست و ارزان بودن و در دسترس بودن آن، كراك را همگاني كرده است و اعتياد به كراك در بسياري از كشورهاي صنعتي شده اعتياد به كراك نه تنها از سنين مدرسه، كه از هنگام تولد و توسط مادران معتاد، آغاز ميشود!
اين ماده مخدر صنعتي بدليل نداشتن بو و سهولت استفاده نسبت به ساير مواد مخدر باعث جذب مصرف كنندگان ساير مواد مانند ترياك گرديده است چرا كه مصرف كراك به قدري آسان است كه فرد در مدت 5 دقيقه حتي در دستشوئي و با استفاده از فندك و ني يا لوله و سنجاق مي تواند آنرا مصرف كند.

امتحان معنائي ندارد
هنگامي كه آمارهاي مربوط به اعتياد اعلام مي شود درصد زيادي به مصرف كنندگان تفنني اختصاص دارد، يعني كساني كه مواد مخدر مصرف مي كند اما هنوز معتاد نشده اند بلكه به صورت تفريحي مصرف مي كنند كه اين مورد را بيشتر مي توانيم در مورد ترياك ببينيم و همين آمارها تفكر اشتابهي را در بين جوانان موجب شده كه: ((با يكبار امتحان آدم معتاد نمي شه!))
اما سال گذشته از تعداد معتادان مراجعه*كننده به مركز تخصصي ترك اعتياد تهران ، 59درصد معتاد به ترياك و 24*درصد معتاد به مصرف كراك بوده*اند در بين جوانان، كراك به صورت ماده*اي كم*خطر با ميزان نشئگي بالا معرفي شده و 95درصد از مصرف*كنندگان، آن را به اسم روان*گردان مي*شناسند اما پس از شروع به مصرف، مشخص مي*شود كه كراك ماده*اي بسيار اعتيادآور است و تنها سه بار مصرف مقدار بسيار اندكي از كرك، اعتياد به آن را حتمي خواهد كرد و پس از اين زمان بسيار كوتاه، شخص را به شدت به خود نيازمند و وابسته مي كند.
تقريبا هرگونه حالت تحرك و نشاط روحي و جسمي كه توسط مواد اعتياد آور ايجاد شود، با حس بيحالي و لختي همراه خواهد بود و هر چقدر مقدار به اصطلاح "پرواز" شادمانه حاصل از اين سوء مصرف، بالاتر باشد، "سقوط" و احساس خماري و افسردگي پس از آن شديدتر و طولاني تر خواهد بود.
تدخين كرك براي شخص حس نشاط ظاهري شديدي به دنبال دارد كه حدود 5 تا 7 دقيقه طول ميكشد. اما پس از آن با افسردگي حاد، احساس بي ا&