Tweet
The Iranian Revolution was the 1979 revolution that transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah (King) Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic under the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The revolution has been divided into two stages: the first stage saw an alliance of liberal, leftist, and religious groups oust the Shah; the second stage, often named the Islamic Revolution, saw the Ayatollah's rise to power. Thereafter, the Islamic Cultural Revolution ensued.
The Shah had been in power since 1941, with a brief interruption in 1953; through the 1960s and 1970s he faced continued opposition from a diverse array of Iranians. The Shah enforced a strict dictatorship, imprisoning hundreds of political activists, and enforcing censorship laws. At the same time, however, living conditions for the people improved significantly, and many basic human and democratic rights were established (e.g. extending suffrage to women). Many prominent religious figures and Mullahs felt many of these reforms indicated the Shah's regime was overtly secular, and thus anti-Islamic. Such opponents also characterized the monarch as a "puppet" of the West, especially the United States and Israel. Many of the nation's urban middle classes, by contrast, felt Iran was not modernizing fast enough, and desired a more liberal constitutional democracy with fewer powers resting with the Shah.
In 1978 a series of protests, triggered by a libelous story attacking Khomeini in the official press, created an escalating cycle of violence, until, on December 12, an estimated two million people filled the streets of Azadi Square (Then Shahyad Square) in Tehran to protest against the Shah. On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran on the demands of Prime Minister Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself), who sought to calm down the situation. Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK (Iran's domestic security and intelligence service), promised free elections, called upon the opposition to preserve the Iran Constitution of 1906 along with its later amendments, and ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations.[1] He also freed all political prisoners, allowing Khomeini to return to Iran after years of exile. Bakhtiar asked Khomeini to create a Vatican-like state in Qom, but Khomeini rejected the proposition and appointed an interim government on his own. Shortly after, with the military announcing their impartiality in the conflict, the overthrow of the monarchy was completed at the hands of the revolutionaries led by Khomeini.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had faced an attempted revolution once prior. In 1953 he briefly fled the country after a power-struggle had emerged between himself and his Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, who had sought control of the armed forces and attempted to nationalize the country's oil fields. Through the aid of a joint CIA and MI6 covert operation, codenamed Operation Ajax the Shah was returned to the throne and fired Mossadegh, who was then arrested.
Pahlavi maintained good relations with the United States and most other western countries, and was often praised by western leaders for his role as a force of "modernity" in the West. Yet as the years progressed his government was increasingly criticized for its political corruption and the brutal practices of SAVAK (secret police) that, in response, generated protests in Iran and elicited condemnation from many parts of the international community.
Strong opposition arose in many sections of society during the Shah's reign. Of particular importance in this respect were the religious figures that had long grown to be an important voice of opposition in Iran. Since the 19th century Tobacco Protests, the clergy had been steadily growing in political as well as religious influence. As this opposition grew, the Shah struck hard on dissidents. In 1963, for example, he attacked theology students who tried to stop the opening of a store that sold liquor.
Ayatollah Khomeini was one of the leaders of the religious opposition, who opposed the Shah's close diplomatic relationship with Israel, universal suffrage (voting rights for women), changes in the election laws that allowed election of religious minorities to office, and changes in the civil code which granted women legal equality in marital issues. Following the arrest of Khomeini, and his subsequent exile from Iran in 1964, rioting among the cleric's followers increased. The Shah frequently chose to answer the riots with violence, arresting and killing demonstrators. It is unknown how many lives were claimed in this campaign; the Pahlavi government claimed it to be 86, while Iranian exiles have estimated it in the thousands.
Faced with growing opposition from the religious leaders, who were joined by small business leaders in 1975, the Shah launched a new effort to assert his control over Iranian society. This effort attempted to minimize the role of Islam in the life of the empire, lauding instead the achievements of pre-Islamic Persian civilization. Thus, in 1976, the beginning of the Iranian solar calendar was changed from the Islamic date to the ascension to throne by Cyrus the Great. Muslim and Marxist publications were also heavily censored.
The Shah's program of reforms was known as the White Revolution. It also abolished the feudal system (causing consequences such as breaking up property owned by some Shia clergy - which reduced their income) and it gave suffrage to women (which was protested by the clergy as being a plot to disrupt the nuclear family unit).
The Shah had been in power since 1941, with a brief interruption in 1953; through the 1960s and 1970s he faced continued opposition from a diverse array of Iranians. The Shah enforced a strict dictatorship, imprisoning hundreds of political activists, and enforcing censorship laws. At the same time, however, living conditions for the people improved significantly, and many basic human and democratic rights were established (e.g. extending suffrage to women). Many prominent religious figures and Mullahs felt many of these reforms indicated the Shah's regime was overtly secular, and thus anti-Islamic. Such opponents also characterized the monarch as a "puppet" of the West, especially the United States and Israel. Many of the nation's urban middle classes, by contrast, felt Iran was not modernizing fast enough, and desired a more liberal constitutional democracy with fewer powers resting with the Shah.
In 1978 a series of protests, triggered by a libelous story attacking Khomeini in the official press, created an escalating cycle of violence, until, on December 12, an estimated two million people filled the streets of Azadi Square (Then Shahyad Square) in Tehran to protest against the Shah. On January 16, 1979 the Shah and the empress left Iran on the demands of Prime Minister Dr. Shapour Bakhtiar (a long time opposition leader himself), who sought to calm down the situation. Bakhtiar dissolved SAVAK (Iran's domestic security and intelligence service), promised free elections, called upon the opposition to preserve the Iran Constitution of 1906 along with its later amendments, and ordered the army to allow mass demonstrations.[1] He also freed all political prisoners, allowing Khomeini to return to Iran after years of exile. Bakhtiar asked Khomeini to create a Vatican-like state in Qom, but Khomeini rejected the proposition and appointed an interim government on his own. Shortly after, with the military announcing their impartiality in the conflict, the overthrow of the monarchy was completed at the hands of the revolutionaries led by Khomeini.
Mohammad Reza Pahlavi had faced an attempted revolution once prior. In 1953 he briefly fled the country after a power-struggle had emerged between himself and his Prime Minister Mohammad Mossadegh, who had sought control of the armed forces and attempted to nationalize the country's oil fields. Through the aid of a joint CIA and MI6 covert operation, codenamed Operation Ajax the Shah was returned to the throne and fired Mossadegh, who was then arrested.
Pahlavi maintained good relations with the United States and most other western countries, and was often praised by western leaders for his role as a force of "modernity" in the West. Yet as the years progressed his government was increasingly criticized for its political corruption and the brutal practices of SAVAK (secret police) that, in response, generated protests in Iran and elicited condemnation from many parts of the international community.
Strong opposition arose in many sections of society during the Shah's reign. Of particular importance in this respect were the religious figures that had long grown to be an important voice of opposition in Iran. Since the 19th century Tobacco Protests, the clergy had been steadily growing in political as well as religious influence. As this opposition grew, the Shah struck hard on dissidents. In 1963, for example, he attacked theology students who tried to stop the opening of a store that sold liquor.
Ayatollah Khomeini was one of the leaders of the religious opposition, who opposed the Shah's close diplomatic relationship with Israel, universal suffrage (voting rights for women), changes in the election laws that allowed election of religious minorities to office, and changes in the civil code which granted women legal equality in marital issues. Following the arrest of Khomeini, and his subsequent exile from Iran in 1964, rioting among the cleric's followers increased. The Shah frequently chose to answer the riots with violence, arresting and killing demonstrators. It is unknown how many lives were claimed in this campaign; the Pahlavi government claimed it to be 86, while Iranian exiles have estimated it in the thousands.
Faced with growing opposition from the religious leaders, who were joined by small business leaders in 1975, the Shah launched a new effort to assert his control over Iranian society. This effort attempted to minimize the role of Islam in the life of the empire, lauding instead the achievements of pre-Islamic Persian civilization. Thus, in 1976, the beginning of the Iranian solar calendar was changed from the Islamic date to the ascension to throne by Cyrus the Great. Muslim and Marxist publications were also heavily censored.
The Shah's program of reforms was known as the White Revolution. It also abolished the feudal system (causing consequences such as breaking up property owned by some Shia clergy - which reduced their income) and it gave suffrage to women (which was protested by the clergy as being a plot to disrupt the nuclear family unit).
Comment